South Shore Journal - The South Shore Journal - An electronic publication ISSN 1933-8163

Letter from the Editor

Dear Readers of the of the South Shore Journal:

We would like to extend our sincere welcome to you in this 3rd Edition of the South Shore Journal. As in past years, this edition was supported by the partnership among the Indiana University Northwest Center for Regional Excellence (CRE) and the Quality of Life Council (QLC). It is our hope that the articles featured in this edition will provide you with a venue that celebrates the works of scholars and community leaders, providing a shared resource to continue the dialogue in our pursuit for a positive quality of life for all in the region.

The IU Northwest Center for Regional Excellence serves as the “Doorway for university and community engagement,” fostering research and teaching, experiential learning, and service through collaboration among faculty, students, and community leaders. As an open door, the CRE effectively eliminates previously perceived walls which could have separated the university from the community and instead fosters positive reaching out and reaching in between and among all constituents through strategic engagements in the region. The mission of the Quality of Life Council is to serve as a public/private partnership dedicated to the promotion of economic development, environmental well- being, and social equity in Lake, Porter, and LaPorte Counties.

This year the Editorial Board has decided to showcase scholarly and creative works that represent a broad range of academic disciplines, with topics inspired by the QLC regional quality indicators that include: a diverse community where residents are treated with equity and dignity, an economically thriving region, a region of opportunity, a region in balance with its’ environment, a region that facilitates learning and intellectual growth, a health community, a region of open neighborhoods, an accessible community, a safe community, a region that appreciates the arts and celebrates life, and a community of engaged and caring citizens.

We would like to extend sincere thanks to the 2009 Editorial Board. They made this publication possible through collaborative efforts among IU Northwest, Purdue University Calumet, Purdue University North Central, Ivy Tech Community College, Valparaiso University, and Calumet College of St. Joseph. We offer special thanks to the authors and readers of this edition. Your engagement in the regional discussion, necessary to promote an enriched quality of life for all residents in northwest Indiana, is greatly valued and appreciated.

Sincerely,

Roy Evans, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Technology Purdue University Calumet Editor, South Shore Journal: 3rd Edition

Quantitative Analysis of Sustainable Development: A Case Study of Northwest Indiana

 

 

 

The Historical Roots of The Nature Conservancy in the Northwest Indiana/Chicagoland Region: From Science to Preservation

The South Shore Journal, Vol. 3, 2009, pp.1-10.

Stephanie Smith - Indiana University Northwest
Steve Mark - Chicago, Illinois

Abstract

The present article highlights the impact that scientists, educators, and activists of the Northwest Indiana/Chicagoland area had on the conservation of land. The habitat and ecosystems of the Indiana Dunes were deemed to be of scientific interest by Henry Cowles, who led an international group of ecologists to visit the area in 1913. This meeting resulted in the formation of the Ecological Society of America, an offshoot of which eventually became The Nature Conservancy. It was only when preservation efforts expanded their focus from scientists attempting to prove that habitats were worthy of preservation to include contributions by people from all walks of life, did conservation take off.

Keywords: The Nature Conservancy, Ecologists Union, Volo Bog

The Historical Roots of The Nature Conservancy in the Northwest
Indiana/Chicagoland Region: From Science to Preservation

…There is not a sufficient number of scientific people as voters to enthuse the politicians… …. (Garland, 1954).

In the late 1890’s and early 1900’s, Henry Chandler Cowles, a botanist at the University of Chicago, published a number of scientific papers on ecological succession from research conducted in the sand dunes of northwestern Indiana (e.g., Cowles, 1899; Cowles, 1901). This research earned him an international reputation as an ecologist (e.g., Cassidy, 2007; Fuller, 1939). Cowles traveled to sand dunes around the world, but he proclaimed the dunes of the southern coast of Lake Michigan to be the “grandest” (Mather, 1917). Throughout his career, Cowles  continued to visit the natural areas of northwestern Indiana, often accompanied by students and fellow scientists (e.g., Cook, 1980).

In 1911 and 1913, Cowles participated in the International Phytogeographical Excursions that allowed ecologists to observe plants in their native habitats in a variety of locales in Great Britain (1911), and the United States  1913). In 1913, Cowles led the excursion to the sand dunes of Lake Michigan (Cook, 1980). The scientific members of the expedition were much impressed with the dunes, and regarded them as one of the wonders of the United States (e.g., Mather, 1917). British scientist A.J. Tansley later wrote of the great ecological value of the region (Tansley, 1913).

Victor Shelford, a member of the 1913 International Phytogeographical Excursion to the Indiana Dunes, was a former student of Cowles. It should be noted that many of Henry Cowles’ students went on to make substantial contributions to ecology and to conservation, as well as other fields (e.g., Cook, 1980). Notable Cowles students included William Cooper, George Fuller, W.C. Allee, Stanley A. Cain, and O.D. Frank (e.g., Engel, 1983; Mark, 2004). An early student of Cowles, Victor Shelford obtained his PhD in zoology from the University of Chicago in 1907, where he remained as a faculty member until 1914 (e.g., Croker, 1991). During Shelford’s time there, he made many field excursions to the habitats in the Northwest Indiana/Chicagoland area with Cowles (Croker), and arranged field trips for his students to visit special habitats in the area. For example, as early as 1909, Shelford visited Volo Bog with his students (e.g., Mark, 1959).

The Ecological Society of America and the Ecologists Union

In 1915, the Ecological Society of America was formed. The formation of this society of ecologists came about through a series of communications between Shelford, Cowles, and Robert Wolcott (e.g., Coker, 1991). Shelford was chosen as the first president of ESA, with Cowles and Wolcott serving as members of the board. One area of interest to the members was the preservation of natural areas, and in 1917 the Committee on Preservation of Natural Conditions was formed with Shelford serving as chair. From 1917 through 1929, Shelford served as chair of the preservation committee, and continued to work within the ESA until 1945 (e.g., Coker, 1991). 

The members of the Committee on Preservation of Natural Conditions quickly realized that the preservation of natural areas needed cooperation between many agencies and organizations including federal and state agencies, private agencies, and politicians. Over the years, the committee prepared report after report on the scientific merit of the natural areas, and justifications for saving the areas. The goal of this ecological information was to affect the management plans of the agencies. Yet, the committee only had limited success in influencing preservation through discussions with the various agencies, and lobbying. It became clear that to progress with conservation, the committee needed financing that it did not have (e.g., Coker, 1991). 

For years, the members of the Ecological Society of America disagreed on the role of the society in preservation. Many of the members regarded the Society as a scientific body, rather than an activist society. As such, this faction did not deem it proper for a scientific body to get involved in politics, or pressuring for a cause. This can be seen in 1937 when the ESA rejected a proposal to allocate 35 cents from each member’s dues to support preservation (Croker, 1991). The dissent came to a head in 1945 when the ESA recommended amending its bylaws to preclude the ESA taking direct action to influence legislation, thereby relegating the organization to an advisory capacity (Croker).

In 1946, a group of ecologists, including Shelford, formed the Ecologists Union to preserve natural areas and encourage scientific work in those areas. The activities of the EU included vigorous lobbying. Membership increased rapidly with the addition of scientists who were not trained in ecology. Vice-President of the Ecologists Union George Fell (a botanist who had taken courses from Shelford) and other members of the EU board further widened the scope of the Ecologists Union by inviting membership by nonscientists from various walks of life with talents and skills that would aid preservation efforts (Coker, 1991). The inclusion of all people from tycoons, to business people, to housewives proved to be a turning point in the conservation movement.

The Nature Conservancy

The newly formed Ecologists Union also suffered from a lack of funding in their preservation efforts. After identifying many natural areas in the Chicagoland area in need of preservation, Vice-President of the EU George Fell temporarily relocated to Washington, D.C. in 1949 where he helped the EU set up an office. Fell had no salary from the EU, and his wife supported them both as a medical technician (Scobell, 1992). It was there that the Ecologists Union transitioned to become The Nature Conservancy, incorporated in 1951 (e.g., Iwanicki, 2007), with Fell as its Executive Director. Fell was initially the only paid employee of The Nature Conservancy (Birchard, 2005).

While, the Ecologists Union focused on campaigning to preserve natural areas, The Nature Conservancy credits Fell for changing its focus to protecting land through purchase (e.g., Scobell, 1992). To achieve this, Fell was a proponent of using the talents of people from a variety of backgrounds, rather than just scientists (e.g., Iwanicki, 2007; Scobell, 1992). His aim was to create a national organization that would train and organize people in fund raising efforts. Until the emergence of the Nature Conservancy, the focus of conservation had been primarily on preserving large, scenic lands (Birchard, 2005). Fell helped change the direction of conservation to include all kinds of wild habitats – from deserts to swamps to bogs. He believed that samples of each type of natural habitat needed to be preserved (Birchard). It took several years of growing pains before The Nature Conservancy made its first land acquisition.

Among the first few purchases was Volo Bog, the first Nature Conservancy acquisition in the Northwest Indiana/Chicagoland region (Iwanicki, 2007). Volo Bog, located in northeastern Illinois, is one of the few local bogs that manifests all of the stages of bog succession (Sheviak & Haney, 1973). Volo Bog has been much celebrated and studied by scientists (Greenberg, 2002). Beginning with visits by Shelford and his students in 1909 (Mark, 1958), educators and scientists have been conducting field trips to Volo Bog. For example, a field trip conducted by former Shelford student S.C. Kendeigh brought 50 students in seven station wagons to study the plant and animal ecology (Mark, 1959). In 1923, Waterman, a former Cowles’ student, produced the first scientific publication on Volo Bog (Waterman, 1921). Since then, the bog has been a source of inspiration for nature lovers, educators, and scientists as a “living laboratory” (Mark, 1959). For these reasons, Fell prepared the documentation justifying the acquisition of Volo Bog by The Nature Conservancy (Iwanicki).

In 1957, George Fell conducted a number of meetings in the Chicagoland area with Cyrus Mark, the first Executive Director of the Illinois chapter of The Nature Conservancy (Iwanicki, 2007) regarding the purchase of Volo Bog. Through a series of negotiations with the owner of Volo Bog, Claude Garland, and many other interested parties, both Volo Bog and neighboring Wauconda Bog were purchased by The Nature Conservancy in 1958, and both areas are preserved to this day (Iwanicki).

Credit is due George Fell for creating the plan initiated in the State of Illinois, but then adopted in Indiana and other states, to dedicate nature preserves, and shepherd them in to the hands of the state government (e.g., Greenberg, 2002; Scobell, 1992). The acquisition of Volo Bog was the model for this process. After its purchase by the Nature Conservancy, Volo Bog was first conveyed to the University of Illinois (e.g., Greenberg, 2002) and then to the State of Illinois for protection (e.g., Iwanicki, 2007).

The preservation of Volo Bog can be seen as an example of the importance of people from all walks of life getting involved in conservation. Cyrus Mark, Executive Director of the Illinois chapter of The Nature Conservancy, was a businessman with a keen interest in preservation, who successfully raised the funds for the acquisition of Volo Bog. Cyrus Mark employed many successful strategies in his fund-raising efforts from emphasizing the scientific and educational values of the land, to pointing out that contributions were tax-deductable (Mark, 1958). This was the first time in the chapter’s history that there was an appeal to the public for help in raising funds (e.g., Greenberg, 2002). Many people were instrumental in the success of the fund-raising. One of note was local botanist Dr. Margery Carlson, the secretary of the Illinois chapter of The Nature Conservancy (e.g., Greenberg, 2002). It took almost 1300 contributions from organizations and individuals (including teachers and students) to cover the cost of the acquisition (Mark, 1959).

It is interesting to note that a similar expansion from predominately scientists to the inclusion of people from all walks of life was occurring in other preservation movements. Most famously in the region was the formation of the Save the Dunes Council in 1952 to protect the habitat of the sand dunes along the shores of Lake Michigan. The organization had at its helm Dorothy Buell, a housewife, and the efforts of the Council culminated in the establishment of the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore (e.g., Engel, 1983). Within the first year of its existence the Council had the opportunity to purchase Cowles Bog for the price of back taxes. The Council did so with funds from a number of organizations and individuals, and both Cowles Bog and Pinhook bog became National Landmarks in 1966. It is noteworthy that the dedication of these bogs was conducted by Stanley A. Cain, a student of Henry Chandler Cowles, the first president of The Nature Conservancy, and the first ecologist to serve in a subcabinet position in the federal government (e.g., Engel).

Today, The Nature Conservancy is the largest environmental organization in the world with offices in each of the 50 states in the United States, and numerous countries worldwide. Each year more than a million acres are acquired for protection, with more than 120 million acres being conserved to date (Birchard, 2005). This is the organization that began over 50 years ago with just one paid employee. It is important to recognize the role that the habitat and the people of the Northwest Indiana/Chicagoland region played in creating this successful organization. The natural areas of the region have been a “…well-spring of inspiration and understanding…”, and this “…section of Lake Michigan shoreland has made and can make numerous significant ripples on the thought, understanding, and life in the United States…”. (Willard, 1975).

References

Birchard, B. (2005). Nature’s keepers: The remarkable story of how The Nature Conservancy became the largest environmental organization in the world. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, John & Sons.

Cassidy, V.M. (2007). Henry Chandler Cowles: pioneer ecologist. Chicago, IL: Kedzie Sigel Press.

Cook, Sarah Gibbard (1980). Cowles Bog, Indiana, and Henry Chandler Cowles (1869-1939). Unpublished manuscript prepared for the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior.

Cowles, Henry C. (1899). The ecological relations of the vegetation on the sand dunes of Lake Michigan. Botanical Gazette, 27(2), 97-117.

Cowles, Henry C. (1901). The physiographic ecology of Chicago and vicinity: a study of the origin, development, and classification of plant societies. Botanical Gazette, 31(2-3), 73-108, 145-182.

Cowles, Henry C. (1913). The international phytogeographic excursion (I.P.E.) in America. Excursion Program. First Section—New York to London (Chicago, 24, July), 11.

Croker, Robert A. (1991). Pioneer Ecologist: The Life and work of Victor Ernest Shelford. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.

Engel, J. Ronald. (1983). Sacred sands: The struggle for community in the Indiana Dunes. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.

Fuller, G.D. (1939). Henry Chandler Cowles. Science, 90, 363-364.

Garland, C. (1954). Natural History Survey. Applied Botany and Plant Pathology. Robert A. Evers Papers 1946-1977. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Archives.

Greenberg, J. (2002). A natural history of the Chicago region. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Iwanicki, S. (2007). The history of Volo Bog. The Bog Log, 24(4) winter, 2-4.

Mark, C. (1958). Natural History Survey. Applied Botany and Plant Pathology. Robert A. Evers Papers 1946-1977. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Archives.

Mark, C. (1959). Natural History Survey. Applied Botany and Plant Pathology. Robert A. Evers Papers 1946-1977. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Archives.

Mark, S. (2004). Orlin Denton Frank’s history. The Hour Glass, 12(1), 1-3.

Mather, Stephen. (1917). Report on the proposed Sand Dunes National Park, Indiana. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

Scobell, B. (1992). The Nature Conservancy: privatization of policy making. Illinois Issues, (May), 18-21.

Sheviak, C. & Haney, A. (1973). Ecological interpretations of the vegetation patterns of Volo Bog, Lake County, Illinois. Transactions of the Illinois Academy of Science, 66.

Tansley, A.J. (1914). International Phytogeographic Excursion in America. The New Phytologist, 12, 324.

Waterman, W.G. (1921). Preliminary report on the bogs of northern Illinois. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science, 14.

Willard, B.E. (1975, November). What the Indiana Dunes mean to ecology. Paper presented at the meeting of Save the Dunes Council, Beverley Shores, IN.

Copyright © The South Shore Journal (TM), 2009

The Cultural Curriculum: Constructing Social Justice in Teaching and Learning In the Classroom

The South Shore Journal, Vol. 3, 2009, pp.34-50.

The Cultural Curriculum:
Constructing Social Justice in Teaching and Learning in the Classroom

Delphina Hopkins-Gillispie, Ph.D.
Valparaiso University

Abstract

Every teacher education program hopes to produce graduates ready to be teachers. Schools of
education must prepare teachers to be culturally sensitive as they teach students from culturally diverse backgrounds. This research study focuses on what it means to teach for social justice, and how the implementations of this study can be a building block for teachers who teach culturally and linguistically diverse students. Preservice teachers were interviewed and they responded to a questionnaire that provided phenomenological insight and ontological knowledge on how to engage students from diverse backgrounds in learning course content. These findings indicate that the preparation of preservice teachers must include new ways of teaching and learning for the new generation of students.

Key words: educator preparation; preservice teacher; social justice; culturally responsive; culturally sensitive; cultural curriculum.

A fundamental pledge of the American (democratic) government is that all children, regardless of their status in society when they enter public school, have the opportunity to receive a good education and, as a result, improve their capacity to be successful in society (Pugach, 2006). However, throughout the history of public schooling in this country, specific groups of children have failed to receive the full benefits of public education and, as a result, have had difficulty achieving success in school (Cremin, 1988). Students who most often experience school in this negative, harmful way are members of racial and ethnic minority groups and/or children from the lower socioeconomic levels of our society (Pugach, 2006).

Many dynamics in society contribute to the systematic deprivation of specific groups of students. Some practices that contribute to the low achievement of students from racial and ethnic minorities or from low-income families unfold in individual classrooms between particular teachers and students—and are under the direct control of teachers (Banks, 2008; Pugach, 2006). Other practices are part of the larger organizational structure and policies that govern schooling. Still others reflect problems in the larger society. The actions of an individual teacher certainly cannot solve widespread social problems. Individual schools and individual teachers, however, can and do make a difference in the lives of their students every day. Teachers and schools can have a profound positive effect on the achievement of racial and ethnic minority students.

Despite these individual successes, the achievement gap persists (Hendrie, 2004). In too many classrooms, minority students continue to fail. The purpose of this research project is to discuss and explore the need for post-secondary Schools of Education to adequately equip preservice teachers for the changing demographics in our schools, to prepare preservice teachers to teach culturally and linguistically diverse students, to promote the success of their preservice students, and what all of this means for future teachers.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework is based on the model of phenomenological study (Patton, 2002). Through this particular lens, the participants’ experiences were the most important elements to examine. As Patton describes, there are two approaches to phenomenology: (a) the first, is for the researcher to become a participant observer and (b) the second, is to focus on the experience of others and how they interpret these experiences in their own personal worldview (pp. 104-105 ).

Since at the core of this research was the participants’ description of their own experiences, how the researchers guided the participants to express their interpretations of the phenomenon was the major concern that determined the reliability of this research. It was crucial that the researcher skillfully craft questions and conduct interviews in order to get at the true essence of the participants’ experiences. It is imperative that the phenomenologist employ rigorous analysis of the experiences of the population studied (Patton, 2002). The aim of this particular study was to understand the essence of being a preservice teacher in a culturally diverse classroom while learning how to teach and connect to the students.

Methods

Setting and Participants

There were six participants in this study, all of whom were undergraduate students enrolled in the teacher education program of a Midwestern university. Three of the participants identified themselves as European American and Caucasian, one as African American, one as Latina (Hispanic), and one as Asian American. Three of the participants were studying to be teachers at the elementary level; two were in Science Education or biology/chemistry and special education; one was in physics and one in Spanish education. Two of the participants were male and four were female.

The participants in this study were recruited and selected based on their ability to contribute their thoughts and feelings about their experiences as preservice students teaching science to culturally diverse students. Students were recruited with the assistance of instructors in general undergraduate education courses. They all volunteered of their own volition to participate in this research project. The researcher was not the participants’ instructor, and the students were not obligated to participate.

Data Collection

As this is a phenomenological study, the researcher distributed a questionnaire to each of the participants; the questionnaire asked questions to elicit responses addressing the study’s guiding questions. There were five questions, all of which were open-ended, and participants were encouraged to write openly about their feelings and insights.

Following the completion of the questionnaire, a scheduled time to interview each participant was arranged. Each interview was tape recorded and then transcribed, coded, and analyzed. The interview was used as a follow-up to the questionnaire in order to seek clarification or additional information. Collecting data from multiple sources increased the credibility of the results (Marshall & Rossman, 1999), affording me the opportunity to understand how the participants interpreted their phenomenological experiences.

Results

In accordance with this study’s theoretical framework, I interpreted what the participants described about their experiences. The information described from the participants contributed to current research. In the tradition of qualitative research, the following responses given below are findings that emerged from this research study.

The African American student stated:

it is important that teachers realize that everyone is different and that there are times when we want to be left alone and not compared to the White students. …Also, it is important that the curriculum focus on different groups. The library should have diverse books for students to read and teachers should learn about other cultures from having people share their experiences. This way the teachers will be better prepared to incorporate it [diversity/multiculturalism] into the curriculum. Hopefully, by having this knowledge they will be able to understand diversity in their classroom, school, and community.

The Latina student responded:

Students should be taught to value and respect their peers to learn all they can about the world around them. They should be encouraged to have an open-mind and to consider others opinions. A teacher can make a big difference in the way one feels in the classroom. He or she should not look down on us because we may speak different or have different ways of thinking. We just want to be accepted, so don’t try to change us to be White… think white, act white…

The Asian student was adamant in making it clear that:

Multiculturalism should be promoted through lessons, activities, and actions that teach students to accept and know about people who are different from them. These lessons should be taught continually throughout a child’s education.

During the interview, the white students had very similar comments; one stated:

… to start, it [diversity/multiculturalism] should be embraced by every faculty and staff member. Because that is where it starts. Next, it should be part of the curriculum and extra-curricular activities. These are ways to start talking/asking questions. Creating groups with diverse students will start a “welcome place” for all. No matter color, religion, status, all should feel welcome in the classroom. This will begin the promotion of multiculturalism in the schools.

Another White student stated:

Within a school setting, I feel that it is extremely important to investigate other cultures through traditional and non-traditional methods. Textbooks can provide information about other cultures, but knowledge conveyed from people that have a close connection to a culture can provide valuable experiences for the student. I realize that opportunities are not always available and that textbooks and traditional teaching strategies may convey a sense of cultural respect to students. Multiculturalism should be conveyed in a school through the faculty and staff being positive role models. Every teacher needs to integrate multiculturalism into their classroom.

Discussion and Conclusion

As illustrated in the above statements, preservice teachers advocate using the curriculum as a vehicle to infuse multiculturalism into daily pedagogy and programs. The ideal curriculum (cultural/multicultural) for teacher educators in Schools of Education - A cultural/multicultural curriculum is needed in order for all students—and especially for minority students—to achieve academic success. From a phenomenological perspective, my hope is that the reader will begin to germinate, cultivate, and nourish/feed his/her consciousness as I have done throughout this research project.

Teachers can begin to feed their consciousness in classrooms and schools where cultural, linguistic, or economic experiences differ significantly from their own. Whether this difference exists between the teacher and one student or between the teacher and a group of students, teachers need to bridge the gap. They need to identify and overcome personal biases they may hold about a particular group of students. Teachers need to make sure their classroom environment provides support for all students, where everyone is respected, feels comfortable, and can learn. All teachers need to create a strong classroom community among students from many different backgrounds.

Through my experiences of teaching (over twenty years), I have also learned the importance of the knowledge of history in understanding the present, and I have developed an appreciation for the sacrifices and accomplishments of progressives such as John Dewey, who preceded me. Dewey (1966) believed that teachers’ concern for their students’ entire educational experience—not just learning the material—should be at the forefront of their planning and teaching. Dewey (1966) believed that the purpose of education, rather than “pouring in” knowledge, was to promote individual growth and intellectual development as a means of preparing students to participate actively and creatively in a democracy (Tanner & Tanner, 1980). According to this view, when students interact with the curriculum in meaningful ways, they will grow intellectually and be prepared to address the needs of students. It is my hope and desire that the teacher will germinate as he/she becomes nourished by the diverse culture of students in the classroom. In addition, learning about students’ heritages and cultures is essential to adequately understand the students’ present struggles and possibly to grasp what economic and political forces are in operation so inferences can be made regarding the academic success of all students.

As I continue to respond to the call to inquiry of teacher education programs, a quote from Melnick and Zeichner (1988) guides me: “Teacher candidates, for the most part, come to teacher education with limited direct interracial and intercultural experience, with erroneous assumptions about diversity among youngsters and with limited expectations for the success of all learners” (p. 89). The results of this study suggest that preservice students in teacher education programs need to have a variety of experiences interacting with diverse students. This can be accomplished with field placement opportunities for preservice teachers in several diverse school settings. The diverse school setting encompasses several components that include students from various racial and ethnic groups, socioeconomic status, and different geographic areas (i.e. rural, suburban, and urban settings). In order for a multicultural/diverse opportunity for preservice teachers to take place in an institution of higher education, several conditions need to be present: (a) first, the college’s or university’s strategic plan needs to identify diversity as a central component of its mission; this has to happen first in order to make available adequate resources for a quality program; (b) second, diversity/multicultural education has to be infused/integrated across curricula; this encompasses all colleges and programs; (c) third, retention and recruitment of underrepresented ethnic minority students, faculty, staff and administrators; there is a need to provide minority role models and personnel of color to mirror the student population; (d) fourth, development of collaborative partnerships with K-12 schools with diverse students; it is imperative that collaborative partnerships exist with school districts that have diverse/multicultural groups; (e) fifth, allocation of sufficient resources for planning and implementation of diversity initiatives; the administration must set aside adequate funds in order for the diversity initiative to be successful; (f) sixth, a review of university/college diversity action plan and implementation; and (g) seventh, ongoing assessment and reevaluation of diversity efforts are essential.

The above enumerated points are essential for administrators at Schools of Education in the planning process to articulate the needs and benefits of a diverse curriculum that is infused across all disciplines on college campuses. Multicultural courses provide the knowledge, skills, and dispositions that teacher education candidates need in a global society, including an understanding of cultural differences, as well as cross-cultural communication and critical pedagogy. The imperative to provide preservice teachers with an education for the 21st century— including an appreciation of diversity—means that we must create well-rounded and educated teachers who can meet the needs of diverse learners.

Preservice teachers at one Midwestern university had several opportunities for world travel, communications, study abroad, and interaction with those who were different; therefore, it is important that preservice teachers in teacher education programs enjoy increased contact withother cultures. This requires understanding other cultures and respecting their value, which is fundamental to being culturally competent. We fail our students if we do not prepare them intellectually and culturally to work and live in our global world. This understanding will evolve as we continue to discover and come to value our differences as well as our similarities. With this said, how do we begin to take on the challenge of preparing preservice students to teach in diverse classrooms? Moreover, how do we confront the major challenge of changing the perceptions and assumptions held by students who come to teacher education programs with myths regarding diverse students?

To better prepare teachers to integrate multiculturalism in their K-12 classrooms, schools of teacher education should prepare future teachers by infusing multiculturalism across the curriculum. Research indicates that teacher preparation, the knowledge of teaching and learning, subject matter knowledge, experience, and the combined set of qualifications measured by teacher licensure are all leading factors in teacher effectiveness (Darling-Hammond, 2006). All of these factors are important, and the literature enumerates a laundry list of these aforementioned traits; however, the issue of multiculturalism and/or diversity does not exist in the research about teacher preparation and what makes a teacher effective in the classroom. Research supports the idea that high quality teacher preparation is important; this preparation, however, has to include addressing the needs of culturally diverse students in the classroom. This is a wake-up call to all Schools of Education.

According to McLaren (2005):

It is important to recognize “the gift of fire” as the gift of revolutionary action itself that is offered by the teacher who struggles alongside students, making the road by walking. The road here is to be understood as Freedom made Real in the commitment to learn to “read the world” critically and expending the effort necessary to bring about social transformation … transforming the self through transforming the social relations of learning and teaching; establishing democracy as a fundamental way of life; developing a critical curiosity; and deepening one’s solidarity and commitment to self and social transformation and the project of humanization. (p. 160)

It is important that teachers build upon students’ culture by recognizing, valuing, and utilizing students’ cultures and languages in their instruction. It is also essential that teachers assist students in connecting concepts they’re studying to what they already know, a process consistent with effective teaching and learning (Eggen & Kauchak, 2004). In order to have rewarding diverse educational experiences, teachers should recognize and build on students’ diverse cultural heritage. Valuing differences is a commitment. When teachers learn about differences, they can use their knowledge to create the conditions in which students who are different from their teachers all have the opportunity to achieve well in school. This can be accomplished by using culturally responsive teaching.

Data obtained through the student interviews and the questionnaire point to some essential characteristics that teachers must exhibit if they wish to motivate and be successful at teaching culturally diverse students; teachers should: (a) be positive role models; (b) care about their students; (c) be open-minded; and (d) be willing to teach all students. Teacher education candidates’ field experiences in culturally and ethnically diverse settings helped to modify, nurture, and solidify their feelings and dispositions toward minority students. Their experiences promoted positive attitudes and enhanced teacher candidates’ multicultural knowledge and understanding of diverse students.

Implications

The Curriculum

If I had to choose a curriculum for Schools of Education, what would it consist of, or specifically what would it look like? Using a critical lens, and the phenomenological approach used in this project, my vision of a curriculum for a teacher education program is centered on the concept that “all children can learn.” When I think of curriculum, the term “subject matter” or “course content” is implied. In preparing preservice teachers, the curriculum needs to change in order to address rapidly changing demographics of student populations.

Poorly prepared and under qualified teachers are less likely to offer their students the most challenging curriculum. And if they are teaching in high-poverty, racially segregated Black or Latino schools, they are less likely to have the supplies to engage students in challenging, hands-on, or project-based learning. This lack of rigor creates a curricular gap that undermines Black and Latino students’ access to selective colleges and universities (Yun & Moreno, 2006).

The need for a multicultural curriculum is paramount to the future of teacher education. The foundation of our ever-increasing learning and understanding about different populations is grounded in knowledge of the globalization of world cultures. Ladson-Billings and Brown (2008) suggested several questions that we must ask of all curricula: (1) What is the nature of the knowledge precollegiate students need in a global culture? (2) How do we prepare prospective teachers for implementing a global curriculum? and (3) How do we integrate multiple perspectives into the curriculum without losing some sense of curriculum coherence? (p. 168). Each of these questions should be addressed in Schools of Education as they redesign their teacher education programs. The multicultural curriculum is a living and breathing specimen that is used to prepare the next generation of educators. It is the lock and key with a unique combination that we have difficulty implementing; however, it provides an avenue for unique opportunities and constraints.

The Cultural Curriculum (Multicultural Curriculum)

The cultural curriculum is a “sensitizing concept” (e.g. culture, society, institutions) that addresses the distributed nature of learning in modern society, warning us of the comforting albeit fallacious notion that historical consciousness develops rationally and sequentially through efforts to create and deliver a state-mandated curriculum (Blumer, 1954, p. 7). Moreover, the cultural/multicultural curriculum should not be confused with schooling and education. The former, schooling, refers to what takes place in schools with students, teachers, administrators, textbooks, assessments, and standards. The latter, education, is a process by which culture is transmitted, a way of teaching essential things to people. The cultural/multicultural curriculum is so much a part of our landscape that teacher education programs should do a better job of preparing teacher education candidates. The cultural/multicultural curriculum plays a major role in shaping the consciousness of preservice teachers of today’s iPod-ed, YouTubed, Instant Messengered, and MySpaced generation of students. Failing to equip preservice teachers for the next generation guarantees cultural/multicultural curricular irrelevance through the current system.

The Future

The message that seems less certain concerns the nature of work force opportunities for young people and how to prepare students for them. While American public education is much more than job preparation, it is myopic to deny that it has served that purpose. Teacher education programs have to do a better job of removing the fog/film from the lens of prospective teachers with the mindset that all students will respond to the same pedagogical methods used by their teachers. This is a new day, a new horizon, and the playing field is larger and more complex, classroom environment that encourages home-family-school-community relationships. This can be accomplished only with fundamental changes in instruction and a level of collaboration between university academic scholars and public school teachers and administrators. I see tomorrow’s youth requiring the following skills: (a) evaluation and analysis skills; (b) critical thinking skills; (c) problem-solving strategies (mathematical problem solving); (d) technological skills; (e) multicultural and global skills; (f) organization and reference skills; (g) synthesis; (h)application; (i) creativity; (j) decision making; and (k) communication skills through a variety of modes. In sum, we need a larger number of preservice teachers who are prepared to know how to think, to solve problems, to discern fact from ideology, to communicate inter-culturally, to be culturally competent, and to demonstrate all the other skills aforementioned. In other words, I envision Schools of Education that take ownership of academic instruction as they provide the keys that will unlock tremendous potential for reform.

References

Banks, J.A. (2008). An introduction to multicultural education (4th
ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Blumer, H. (1954). What is wrong with social theory? American Sociological Review, 19, 3-10.

Cremin, L. (1988). American education: The metropolitan experience 1876-1980. New York: Harper & Row.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Powerful teacher education: Lessons from exemplary programs. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.

Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: The Free Press.

Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2004). Introduction to teaching: Becoming a professional. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hendrie, C. (2004). In U.S. schools, race still counts. Education Week, 23(19), 1, 16- 19.

Ladson-Billings, G., & Brown, K. (2008). Curriculum and cultural diversity: The Sage handbook of curriculum & instruction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Marshall, C., & Rossman, G.B. (1999). Designing qualitative research (3rd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

McLaren, P. (2005). Red seminars: Radical excusions into educational theory, cultural politics, and pedagogy. Creskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

Melnick, S.L., & Zeichner, K.M. (1998). Teacher education’s responsibility to address diversity issues: Enhancing institutional capacity. Theory Into Practice, 37(2), 88-95.

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd ed.).

Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Pugach, M.C. (2006). Because teaching matters. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. N. (1980). Curriculum development: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Yun, J.T., & Moreno, J.F. (2006). College access, K-12 concentrated disadvantage, and the next 25 years of educational research, Educational Researcher, 35(1), 12-19.

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